"Why Did You Just Do That?" Explainability and Artificial Theory of Mind for Social Robots

This week I have been attending (virtually) the excellent RoboPhilosophy conference, and this morning gave a plenary talk "Why did you just do that?" Here is the abstract:

An important aspect of transparency is enabling a user to understand what a robot might do in different circumstances. An elderly person might be very unsure about robots, so it is important that her assisted living robot is helpful, predictable – never does anything that puzzles or frightens her – and above all safe. It should be easy for her to learn what the robot does and why, in different circumstances, so that she can build a mental model of her robot. An intuitive approach would be for the robot to be able to explain itself, in natural language, in response to spoken requests such as “Robot, why did you just do that?” or “Robot, what would you do if I fell down?” In this talk I will outline current work, within project RoboTIPS, to apply recent research on artificial theory of mind to the challenge of providing social robots with the ability to explain themselves. 

And here are the slides:

Here are links to the movies:

On slide 16,

on slide 20,

on slide 21, and

on slide 22.

And here are the papers referenced in the talk, with links:

1. Jobin, A., Ienca, M. & Vayena, E. (2019) The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines. Nat Mach Intell 1, 389–399
2. Winfield, A. Ethical standards in robotics and AI. Nature Electronics 2, 46–48 (2019).  Pre-print here.
3. Winfield, A. F. (2018) Experiments in Artificial Theory of Mind: from safety to story telling. Front. Robot. AI 5:75.
4. Blum, C., Winfield, A. F. and Hafner, V. V. (2018) Simulation-based internal models for safer robots. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 4 (74). pp. 1-17.
5. Vanderelst, D. and Winfield, A. F. (2018) An architecture for ethical robots inspired by the simulation theory of cognition. Cognitive Systems Research, 48. pp. 56-66.
6. Winfield AFT (2018) When Robots Tell Each Other Stories: The Emergence of Artificial Fiction. In: Walsh R., Stepney S. (eds) Narrating Complexity. Springer, Cham. Preprint here.
7. Winfield, AF and Jirotka, M. (2017) The case for an ethical black box. In: Gao, Y. et al, eds. (2017) Towards Autonomous Robot Systems. LNCS 10454, pp. 262-273, Springer. Preprint here.
8. Winfield AFT, Katie Winkle, Helena Webb, Ulrik Lyngs, Marina Jirotka and Carl Macrae, Robot Accident Investigation: a case study in Responsible Robotics, chapter submitted to RoboSoft.

and mentioned in the Q&A:

1. Winfield, AF, K. Michael, J. Pitt and V. Evers (2019) Machine Ethics: The Design and Governance of Ethical AI and Autonomous Systems [Scanning the Issue], in Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 107, no. 3, pp. 509-517.
2. Vanderelst, D. and Winfield, A. (2018), The Dark Side of Ethical Robots, AIES '18: Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society Dec 2018 Pages 317–322. 

Ethical Governance: what is it and who's doing it?

These days I often find myself talking about ethical governance. Not just talking about but advocating: for instance in written evidence to the 2016 parliamentary select committee on robots and AI I made the link between ethical governance and trust. I believe that without transparent ethical governance robotics and AI will not win public trust, and without trust we will not see the societal benefits of robots and AI that we all hope for.

But what exactly is ethical governance and who is doing it, and perhaps more importantly, who in robotics and AI is doing it well?

In a draft paper on the subject I define ethical governance as

a set of processes, procedures, cultures and values designed to ensure the highest standards of behaviour. Ethical governance thus goes beyond simply good (i.e. effective) governance, in that it inculcates ethical behaviours. Normative ethical governance is seen as an important pillar of responsible research and innovation (RRI), which “entails an approach, rather than a mechanism, so it seeks to deal with ethical issues as or before they arise in a principled manner rather than waiting until a problem surfaces and dealing with it in an ad hoc way [1]” 

The link I make here between ethical governance and responsible research and innovation is I think really important. Ethical governance is a key part of RRI. They are not the same thing but it would be hard to imagine good ethical governance without RRI, and vice versa.

So what would I expect of companies or organisations who claim to be ethical? As a starting point for discussion here are five things that ethical companies should do:

• Have an ethical code of conduct, so that everyone in the company understands what is expected of them. This should sit alongside a mechanism which allows employees to be able to raise ethical concerns, if necessary in confidence, without fear of displeasing a manager.
• Provide ethics training for everyone, without exception. Ethics, like quality, is not something you can do as as add-on; simply appointing an ethics manager, while not a bad idea, is not enough. Ethical governance needs to become part of a company's culture and DNA, not just in product development but in management, finance, HR and marketing too.
• Undertake ethical risk assessments of all new products, and act upon the findings of those assessments. A toolkit, or method, for ethical risk assessment of robots and robotic systems exists in British Standard BS 8611, which - alongside much else - sets out 20 ethical risks and hazards together with recommendations on how to mitigate these and verify that they have been addressed.
• Be transparent about your ethical governance. Of course your robots and AIs must be transparent too, but here I mean transparency of process, not product. It's not enough to claim to be ethical, you need to show how you are ethical. That means publishing your ethical code of conduct, membership of your ethics board if you have one (and its terms of reference), and ideally case studies showing how you have conducted ethical risk assessments.
• Really value ethical governance.  Even if you have the four processes above in place you also needs to be sincere about ethical governance; that ethical governance is one of your core values, and just not a smokescreen for what you really value, like maximising shareholder returns.

My final point about really valuing ethical governance is of course hard to evidence. But, like trust, confidence in a company's claim to be ethical has to be earned and - as we've seen - can easily be damaged.

This brings me to my second question: who is doing ethical governance? And are there any examples of best practice? A week or so ago I asked Twitter this question. I've had quite a few nominations but haven't yet looked into them all. When I have, I will complete this blog post.

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[1] Rainey, S., and Goujon, P. (2011). Toward a Normative Ethical of Governance of Technology. Contextual Pragmatism and Ethical Governance. In Ren von Schomberg (ed.) Towards Responsible Research and Innovation in the Information and Communication Technologies and Security Technologies Fields, Report of the European Commission-DG Research and Innovation.

2017 PACTS Lecture on Robot Ethics and Transport

Here are the slides for my Parliamentary Advisory Council for Transport Safety (PACTS) lecture last night in Westminster, on robot ethics and transport. A full transcript of my lecture can be found here.

The case for an Ethical Black Box

Last month we presented our paper The Case for an Ethical Black Box at Towards Autonomous Robotic Systems (TAROS 2017), University of Surrey. The paper makes a very simple proposition: all robots should be fitted, as standard, with the equivalent of an aircraft Flight Data Recorder. We argue that without such a device - which we call an ethical black box - it will be impossible to properly investigate robot accidents. Ian Sample covered our paper in the Guardian here.

Here is the paper abstract:

This paper proposes that robots and autonomous systems should be equipped with the equivalent of a Flight Data Recorder to continuously record sensor and relevant internal status data. We call this an ethical black box. We argue that an ethical black box will be critical to the process of discovering why and how a robot caused an accident, and thus an essential part of establishing accountability and responsibility. We also argue that without the transparency afforded by an ethical black box, robots and autonomous systems are unlikely to win public trust.

And here are the presentation slides from TAROS:



The full paper can be downloaded from here. Comments and feedback welcome.

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The full paper reference:

Winfield A.F.T., Jirotka M. (2017) The Case for an Ethical Black Box. In: Gao Y., Fallah S., Jin Y., Lekakou C. (eds) Towards Autonomous Robotic Systems. TAROS 2017. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 10454. Springer, Cham.

Related blog posts:
The infrastructure of life 2 - Transparency

The infrastructure of life 2 - Transparency

Part 2: Autonomous Systems and Transparency

In my previous post I argued that a wide range of AI and Autonomous Systems (from now on I will just use the term AS as shorthand for both) should be regarded as Safety Critical. I include both autonomous software AI systems and hard (embodied) AIs such as robots, drones and driverless cars. Many will be surprised that I include in the soft AI category apparently harmless systems such as search engines. Of course no-one is seriously inconvenienced when Amazon makes a silly book recommendation, but consider very large groups of people. If a truth such as global warming is - because of accidental or willful manipulation - presented as false, and that falsehood believed by a very large number of people, then serious harm to the planet (and we humans who depend on it) could surely result.

I argued that the tools barely exist to properly assure the safety of AS, let alone the standards and regulation needed to build public trust, and that political pressure is needed to ensure our policymakers fully understand the public safety risks of unregulated AS.

In this post I will outline the case that transparency is a foundational requirement for building public trust in AS based on the radical proposition that it should always be possible to find out why an AS made a particular decision.

Transparency is not one thing. Clearly your elderly relative doesn't require the same level of understanding of her care robot as the engineer who repairs it. Not would you expect the same appreciation of the reasons a medical diagnosis AI recommends a particular course of treatment as your doctor. Broadly (and please understand this is a work in progress) I believe there are five distinct groups of stakeholders, and that AS must be transparent to each, in different ways and for different reasons. These stakeholders are: (1) users, (2) safety certification agencies, (3) accident investigators, (4) lawyers or expert witnesses and (5) wider society.

1. For users, transparency is important because it builds trust in the system, by providing a simple way for the user to understand what the system is doing and why.
2. For safety certification of an AS, transparency is important because it exposes the system's processes for independent certification against safety standards.
3. If accidents occur, AS will need to be transparent to an accident investigator; the internal process that led to the accident need to be traceable. 
4. Following an accident lawyers or other expert witnesses, who may be required to give evidence, require transparency to inform their evidence. And 
5. for disruptive technologies, such as driverless cars, a certain level of transparency to wider society is needed in order to build public confidence in the technology.

Of course the way in which transparency is provided is likely to be very different for each group. If we take a care robot as an example transparency means the user can understand what the robot might do in different circumstances; if the robot should do anything unexpected she should be able to ask the robot 'why did you just do that?' and receive an intelligible reply. Safety certification agencies will need access to technical details of how the AS works, together with verified test results. Accident investigators will need access to data logs of exactly what happened prior to and during an accident, most likely provided by something akin to an aircraft flight data recorder (and it should be illegal to operate an AS without such a system). And wider society would need accessible documentary-type science communication to explain the AS and how it works.

In IEEE Standards Association project P7001, we aim to develop a standard that sets out measurable, testable levels of transparency in each of these categories (and perhaps new categories yet to be determined), so that Autonomous Systems can be objectively assessed and levels of compliance determined. It is our aim that P7001 will also articulate levels of transparency in a range that defines minimum levels up to the highest achievable standards of acceptance. The standard will provide designers of AS with a toolkit for self-assessing transparency, and recommendations for how to address shortcomings or transparency hazards.

Of course transparency on its own is not enough. Public trust in technology, as in government, requires both transparency and accountability. Transparency is needed so that we can understand who is responsible for the way Autonomous Systems work and - equally importantly - don't work.

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Thanks: I'm very grateful to colleagues in the IEEE global initiative on ethical considerations in Autonomous Systems for supporting P7001, especially John Havens and Kay Firth-Butterfield. I'm equally grateful to colleagues at the Dagstuhl on Engineering Moral Machines, especially Michael Fisher, Marija Slavkovik and Christian List for discussions on transparency.

Related blog posts:
The Infrastructure of Life 1 - Safety
Ethically Aligned Design
How do we trust our Robots?
It's only a matter of time